Cessna 172 Landing in Microsoft Flight Simulator

Summary: How to operate a Cessna 172 for approach and landings in Microsoft Flight Simulator X; learn more about flight simulator software in this free instructional video.

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Balance in Microsoft Flight Simulator

Balance in Microsoft Flight Simulator

Summary: How to balance an aircraft in Microsoft Flight Simulator X; learn more about flight simulator software in this free instructional video.

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Aircraft Balance in Microsoft Flight Simulator

Summary: How an aircraft is balanced in Microsoft Flight Simulator X; learn more about flight simulator software in this free instructional video.

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Air Traffic Control in Microsoft Flight Simulator

Summary: How to use air traffic control for taxi and weather conditions in Microsoft Flight Simulator X; learn more about flight simulator software in this free instructional video

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Aircraft Landing System PRMG-76U/PRMG-5

Ground equipment of PRMG-76U / PRMG-5 instrumental landing system of decimetric range is intended to provide approach and landing for an aircraft, equipped with airborne navigation system RSBN-2S or its modifications, around-the-clock under ICAO CAT I-II / CAT I, respectively, in manual, semiautomatic and automatic mode.

MAIN FEATURES:

• Automatic Redundancy backup
• Local and remote control of radio beacons
• Automatic switch to stand-by circuit in a case of main circuit failure
• Continuous tolerance testing
• Remote check and control
• High reliability
• The systems can be used at a field and temporary airdromes.
• PRMG-76U is recommended to use at stationary airdrome in remote control mode made from control tower. It provides landing under ICAO CAT II conditions if transmitting antennas and check point masts are installed on the foundation.
• High mobility, small time of deployment, and universal autonomous power supply make PRMG-5 indispensable when there is the need of frequent moving from one airdrome to another. 
  

COMPONENT PARTS:

• Glide-path radio beacon (GP)
• Localizer (LLZ)
• DME repeater station (DR), collocated with LLZ in control room of distance-measuring localizer beacon (DME / LLZ)
• Telecontrol & telesignalling equipment (TC-TS)

SPECIFICATIONS OF PRMG-76U / PRMG-5

	PRMG-76U	PRMG-5
Localizer (LLZ)
Antenna system, elements in array	20	10
Polarization	horizontal
Range, not less	45km
Coverage zone, horizontal plane	±15°
Coverage zone, vertical plane	0.85°-7°
Frequency range	905.1 - 932.4 MHz
Frequency stability	± 0.005 %
Number of channels	40
Established limits of directional sector	3° - 6°
Deviation from established on-course plane position at the beginning of runway, not more - for LLZ Cat I	± 10.5 m
- for LLZ Cat II	± 7.5 m
Glide-path radio beacon (GP)
Antenna system	"Zero area"
Polarization	horizontal
Range, not less	18 км
Coverage zone, horizontal plane	± 8°
Coverage zone, vertical plane	0.3 - 1.75
Frequency range	939.6 - 966.9 MHz
Frequency stability	± 0.005 %
Number of channels	40
Established limits of glide slope angle	2° - 4°
Deviation from established glide-path plane position, not more	± 0.075
DME Repeater
Antenna system	4-element array
Range, not less	45 km	50 km
Coverage zone, horizontal / vertical plane	as for LLZ
Frequency range / Frequency stability / Number of channels	as for GP
Limits of ZERO POINT setting from DME repeater location	0 - 5 km
Distance calculation error by aircraft, not more	250 m
Overall Dimensions
LLZ (GP) operating room, m	m 4,2 x 2,42 x 2,8	4,36x2,05x2,24
LLZ (GP) cabinet, m	m 1,60 x 0,93 x 0,68	1,23x0,60x0,51
Electric power station, m	m 1,40 x 1,43 x 1,64	2,63x1,72x1,84
Operating Conditions
Temperature	-50 to +50°C
Wind Load	up to 50 m/s
Relative humidity	up to 98% at +35°C
Power Supply
Circuit, three- phase	380V, 50Hz
Autonomous (petrol electric power station) / Accumulators	220В, 50MHz /+24V
Consumed power, not more ~ Total, including life support facilities, per each beacon, not more  ~ Basic LLZ / GP equipment, not more	2,5 kVA 600 / 270 VA

 

Reliability
MTBF of each radio beacon, not less 3 500 hrs
Aircraft Landing System PRMG-76U/PRMG-5|Airport Radio Beaco

Source:AT Electronic and Communication International Ltd

Inside The A380 Cockpit

Hava Trafik Kontrol Nedir?

HAVA TRAFİK KONTROL
Türkiye hava sahası ve toprakları üzerinde 982.282 km karelik hava sahası ve 44.569 km karelik uçuş yolu vardır. Hava trafiğinin düzenlenmesi ve hava araçlarının hava alanlarımıza güvenli iniş kalkış ve de hava sahasından transit uçuş yapabilmelerini sağlamak amacıyla 2 saha kontrol, 16 yaklaşma kontrol ve 29 meydan kontrol merkez ünitesi mevcuttur. Türkiye 'de havalimanı ve meydanlarda 2005 yılında toplam 534.087 uçak trafiği (iç hat= 256.802, dış hat= 277.285), 54.525.727 yolcu trafiği (iç hat= 19.942.692, dış hat= 34.583.035) gerçekleşmiştir.

Hava Trafik Servisleri (ATS:Air Traffic Services)


1-)ATC (Air Traffic Control):Hava Trafik Kontrol
Meydan Kontrol-Kule (Tower)
Yaklaşma (approach) Kontrol (APP)
Yol-Saha (area) Kontrol (ACC)
2-)FIC (Flight Information Center):Uçuş Bilgi Merkezi
3-)FIS (Flight Information Service):Uçuş Bilgi Hizmeti

Hava trafik hizmetlerinin sağlanması için duyulan ihtiyaç şu faktörler göz önüne alınarak incelenir.

a-)Mevcut hava trafiğinin tipi (IFR/VFR)
b-)Meteorolojik koşullar
c-)Hava trafik yoğunluğu
d-)İlgili olabilecek diğer faktörler

Hava Trafik kısaca uçuşta, meydan çevresinde ve hava alanlarında olan trafiğe denir. Hava Trafik genel anlamda çeşitlidir. Ama ben bütün sayfalar boyunca Hava Trafik Kontrolörlüğü için anlatım yapıyorum. Hava Trafik Hizmetinin amaçları arasında, uçaklar arasındaki çarpışmaları önlemek, manevra sahasındaki uçakların o sahadaki manialarla (engellerle) çarpışmalarını önlemek, düzenli bir trafik akışını sürdürmek ve hızlandırmak, uçuşların emniyetli ve etkili bir biçimde yürütülmesi için faydalı tavsiye bilgileri sağlamak, arama ve kurtarmaya ihtiyaç duyan uçakla ilgili olarak, ilgili kuruluşlara yardımcı olmak vardır.

Hava trafik kontrol hizmeti; kontrollü hava sahası içindeki bütün IFR uçuşlara, kontrollü hava sahası içindeki bütün VFR uçuşlara, kontrollü meydanlardaki bütün meydan trafiğine hizmet verecek şekilde yapılır.

Hava Trafik Kontrolörlüğü, dünyanın en zor ve en stresli mesleklerinden biridir. En ufak bir hata veya dikkatsizlik büyük facialara neden olabilir. Hava Trafik Kontrolörleri için söylenen bir söz vardır. Kontrolörler, pilotların gözü ve kulağıdır diye. Bu sözü şöyle bir örnekle açıklayabiliriz. Bir odaya yaklaşık 20 kör insanı koyalım. Sonra da bu insanlara odanın içinde yürümelerini söyleyelim. Bu insanlar ister istemez, birbirlerine çarpacaklardır. İşte havada da durum aynen böyle sayılabilir. Eğer Hava Trafik Kontrolörü pilota ne yapacağını söylemezse, daha doğrusu gerekli ayırmaları yapmazsa, uçakların birbirleri veya başka engellerle çarpışması kaçınılmazdır. Kontrolörün dikkati yanında, soğukkanlı ve anında karar verme yeteneğide olmak zorundadır. Eğer bir uçak zor bir durumda ise, kontrolör çok kısa bir düşünmenin ardından gerekenleri yapmalıdır.

Kontrolör bir uçağın bilgisini, strip denen hazır kartlara yazar. Bu bilgiler, uçağın adı, seviyesi, gideceği yollar, kalkış ve iniş meydanı, geçtiği bir nokta ve bir sonraki noktaya tahmini varışı ve gerekli olan başka bilgilerdir.

Yukarıda kalkış stribini görüyorsunuz. Rengi mavidir. Burada 1 numara ile gösterilen bölgeye uçağın tipi ve sürati yazılır. 2 numara ile gösterilen yere uçağın çağrı adı, 3 ile gösterilen bölgeye uçağın iniş ve gerekirse kalkış meydanı, 4 ile gösterilen yere hava trafik kleransı, 5 ile gösterilen bölgeye uçağın tahmini kalkış zamanı, 6 ile gösterilen bölgeye uçağın gerçek kalkış saati ve 7 ile gösterilen bölgeye kullanılan pist yazılır. Geri kalan bölgeler ise daha farklı bilgiler içindir.


Yukarıdaki strip ise geliş stiribidir ve rengi sarıdır.1 numara ile gösterilen bölgeye uçağın müsade edilen hududa varış zamanı, 2 ile gösterilen bölge geçilen fixin gerçek zamanı, 3 ile gösterilen bölge uçağın tipi, 4 ile gösterilen bölge uçağın tipi ve sürati ve 5 numara ile gösterilen bölgeye ise kullanılan pist yazılır. Geri kalan bölümlere ise farklı ve gerekli bilgiler yazılır.





Yukarıda görülen stripler ise beyaz renklidir. Günümüzde genelde bunlar kullanılmaya başladı. Bu stripler otomatik olarak bilgisayardan (FDP sistemi) çıkmakta ve Hava Trafik Kontrolörlerinin yükünü biraz hafifletmektedir.

Ayrıca hava trafik kontrolörlerinin stripleri koydukları, board dediğimiz alanlarıda yukarıda görüyorsunuz. Stripleri boardda kendimize kolaylık sağlamak açısından, bize yakın olan, yani gelen uçakların bilgilerinin bulunduğu stripleri alta koyuyoruz. Kendimizce sıralama yapıyoruz. Örneğin beş geliş, beş kalkış uçağımız olsun. Bu durumda ilk bize gelecek uçaktan, bize son gelecek uçağa doğru, bunlarının striplerini alttan yukarıya doğru sıralıyoruz. Kalkışta ise tersi söz konusu. Çünkü, ilk kalkan uçak bizden uzaklaşacaktır. Bu yüzden ilk kalkan uçakların stripleri yukarıya, son kalkan uçakların ise aşağıya konur. Bu gibi sıralamalar hep kolaylık sağlamak için yapılıyor. Fakat kontrolör kendine nasıl kolaylık sağlıyorsa istediği şekilde stripleri dizebilir.


Meydan kontrolün(TWR) sorumluluk sahasının bittiği yerde yaklaşma kontrol, yaklaşma kontrolün (APP) sorumluluk sahasının bittiği yerde saha kontrol görevi devralır. Bu duruma göre kalkan bir uçak önce kule ile temas eder. Kuleden gerekli bilgiler ve müsadeler alındıktan sonra kalkışa geçer. Belli bir seviyeye geldiği zaman (1000 feet) yaklaşma kontrolle temasa geçer. Buradan da gerekli hizmeti alıp tırmandıktan sonra, yine belli bir seviyeden sonra (17000 feet) saha kontrolle temas eder. Saha kontrolün(ACC) sorumluluk sahasında başka bir meydanada gidebilir veya komşu bir saha kontrolün sorumluluk sahasına geçebilir. (Örneğin İstanbul Atatürk Havalimanından kalkıp Van Havaalanına gidiyorsa, İstanbul Saha Kontrolün sorumluluğundan Ankara Saha Kontrolün sorumluluğuna geçer.) Yukarıda verdiğim rakamlar her meydan için değişebilir.


Uçuş Tipleri
İki çeşit uçuş türü vardır.Bunlar VFR ve IFR uçuştur.


VFR (Visual Flight Rules)-Görerek Uçuş Kuralları: VFR uçuş demek adından anlaşılacağı üzere görerek uçuş demektir. Yani pilot VFR uçarken, çevredeki tepelerden, engellerden, barajlardan, nehirlerden vb. yeryüzü şekillerinden yararlanarak uçar. Bu uçuşu daha çok küçük uçaklar erçekleştirirler. Yolcu uçakları VFR uçamazlar. Ayrıca 20000 feet üzerinde de VFR uçuş yapılmaz. Hava Trafik Kontrolörü VFR uçan uçaklara tavsiye hizmeti sağlar. Bu uçuşun olabilmesi için bazı şartlar vardır. Bunlar:



a-)Tavan 1500 feet olmalıdır. Yani yeryüzüne en yakın bulutun yerden yüksekliği en az 1500 feet olmalıdır.
b-)Yer rüyeti (görüşü) en az 5 NM (8 km) olmalıdır.
c-)Bulutlara uçuşta yatay 1500 metre, dikey 300 metreden fazla yaklaşılmamalıdır.
Eğer bu şartlar sağlanıyorsa VFR uçuşa müsade edilebilir. VFR uçan uçaklar için uçuş seviyeleri şu şekildedir.Doğuya uçan VFR uçaklar, 0 ve 179 derece arasında, TEK BİN+500 feet. Örneğin, 3500 feet, 5500 feet, 7500 feet, .....,17500 feet, 19500 feet.
Batıya uçan VFR uçaklar ise 180 ve 359 derece arasında, ÇİFT BİN +500 feet. Örneğin 4500 feet, 6500 feet, 8500 feet,.....,16500 feet, 18500 feet.

IFR (Instrument Flight Rules)-Aletli Uçuş Kuralları:IFR uçuş aletle yapılan uçuş demektir. Yolcu uçakları ve büyük uçaklar IFR uçuş yaparlar. Bunun için uçakta gerekli ekipmanlar bulunacak (S/S yardımcıları), belirlenmiş emniyet seviyesi altında uçulmayacaktır. Uçuşlarını rota dediğimiz yollardan yaparlar, nasıl ki karayollarında TEM yada E-5 gibi yol ve isimleri var, havada da G-8, UL-606 gibi yollar var. Ayrıca bu yollarda, belirlenmiş belli bir seviyenin altında uçulmaz. Bu seviyeler, arazideki engebeler, dağlar veya başka engellerden korunmak için yapılmış, güvenli seviyelerdir. IFR uçuşlar içinde seviye olarak şöyle bir kolaylık vardır.


Üyeler içindir. üye olun... Doğuya uçan uçaklar için, 0 ve 179 derece arasında TEK BİN feet. Örnek olarak, 15000 feet, 17000 feet, 19000 feet,....., 27000 feet, 29000 feet,31000 feet, 33000 feet, ..., 41000 feet, 45000 feet, 49000 feet.
Batıya uçan uçaklar için, 180 ve 359 derece arasında, ÇİFT BİN feetdir. Örnek olarak seviyeler, 16000 feet, 18000 feet, 20000 feet,....., 26000 feet, 28000 feet, 30000 feet, 32000 feet, ... , 40000 feet, 43000 feet, 47000 feet.

Not:41000 feet sonrasında dikey ayırmalar 2000 feet aralığına çıkar. Eurocontrol ülkeleri bu sistemi uygular. Fakat Eurocontrol bölgesi dışında kalan bazı ülkeler( İran, Suriye vb. ) ülkeler 29000 feetten sonra dikeyde 2000 feetlik ayırma uygular. Türkiye ve Eurontcol' de 2000 yılına kadar bu sistemle çalışıyordu. 2000 yılından sonra RVSM uygulaması devreye girdi. Bugün itibariyle 41000 feete kadar batı çift, doğu tek bin feet iken, 41000 feetten sonrasında 2000 feetlik ayırma nedeniyle ilk batılı seviye 43000 feet, ilk doğulu seviye 45000 feettir.

Bu verdiğim seviyeler düz uçuş yapan uçaklar içindir. Tırmanan ve alçalan uçaklar için değildir. Ayrıca yolcu uçakları, genelde 25000 feet ve 39000 feet arasında uçarlar. 25000 feet altında fazla yakıt harcadıkları için, 39000 feet üzerinde ise fazla tırmanamadıkları için, bu seviyeleri tercih ederler.

Training and Safety

GA flight sims: A great way to sharpen skills and cut flying costs

By Dave Hirschman

On Jan. 25, Bob Knill, an instrument-rated private pilot in Frederick, Md., flew 1.9 hours of IFR practice “under the hood” in a rented Piper Warrior and logged three ILS approaches and unusual attitude recoveries with a CFII.

His cost, including aircraft rental, fuel, and instructor fees, was about $300.

On Tuesday, Knill performed several more approaches with his instructor—with emergencies such as a simulated vacuum pump failure and pitot ice thrown in—during 90 minutes in a personal computer-based aviation training device (PCATD).

His cost (since he had free access to the PCATD) was zero.

All six of the approaches, as well as the holds and tracking radials, could be logged for Knill’s IFR proficiency. Afterward, he said the real airplane and the simulator have certain advantages.

“The unusual attitude recoveries in the airplane were great because there’s no other way to simulate those sensations without actual movement,” he said. “The system failures in the simulator were helpful because you can’t re-create them in the airplane. It’s different seeing the airspeed indicator at zero (as it would be if the pitot tube entrance were blocked by ice) than simply covering up the airspeed indicator.”

Airline and military flight training pioneered the use of sophisticated simulators in the last 25 years, and general aviation is following with computer-based, high-fidelity systems.

In order to qualify as a PCATD, a computer system must have physical controls attached, and manufacturers must gain approval for each model. The FAA requires that PCATD flight controls respond with the same immediacy, and in the same way, as an actual airplane. As computers have gained processing power, and graphics and software have rapidly improved, flight simulator performance has become increasingly realistic.

All PCATDs must have a self-centering control stick or yoke, rudder pedals, and physical controls (not a computer mouse) for moving flaps, throttle, propeller RPM, mixture, pitch trim, communications and navigation radios, timers, landing gear levers, and other cockpit controls and instrumentation.

PCATDs are increasingly being incorporated into flight schools, and instrument students can log up to 10 hours—half their allowable simulated IFR time—on the devices.

Student pilots can log up to 2.5 hours of simulator time toward private pilot certificates, and commercial students can log up to 50 hours. Without fuel, mechanical wear and tear, or insurance costs, flight simulators typically cost about one-third as much to rent as real airplanes. And some students buy them outright for training at home.

Instead of a noisy, stressful environment, simulators allow pilots to hit the “pause” button any time they have a question or want to see something play out again. And before going on a cross-country trip to an unfamiliar airport, pilots with access to PCATDs can build familiarity and confidence by flying all the approaches they might get before they ever leave town.

For more information about PCATDs and logging simulator time, see the AOPA Pilot Information Center’s subject report, or call the experts in AOPA's Pilot Information Center at 800/872-2672.

Flight Testing of Fixed-Wing Aircraft (Aiaa Education Series)

Publisher: AIAA (American Institute of Aeronautics & Ast
Number Of Pages: 441
Publication Date: 2003-09
ISBN-10 / ASIN: 1563475642
ISBN-13 / EAN: 9781563475641
Binding: Hardcover

Alıntı:

Book Description: The measurement of performance during an airplane's flight testing is one of the more important tasks to be accomplished during its development as it impacts on both the airplane's safety and its marketability. Performance sells airplanes. This book discusses performance for both propeller-driven and jet aircraft. However, its emphasis is on propeller-driven aircraft since much of the methodology for testing of propeller driven aircraft has been lost with time. The book is intended as a text for those teaching courses in fixed-wing flight testing. It is also a reference for those involved in flight test on a daily basis or those who need knowledge of flight testing to manage those activities. The book is divided into three sections. The first two sections--Performance, and Stability and Control--are arranged so that they might be taught as a semester course at the upper-level undergraduate or graduate level. The third section, Hazardous Flight Tests, provides information based upon more than 30 years of experience in performing and directing such tests and serves as a valuable reference.

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Aerodynamics of the Helicopter

Aerodynamics of the Helicopter
By A. Gessow


Publisher: Ungar Pub Co
Number Of Pages: 351
Publication Date: 1981-06
ISBN-10 / ASIN: 0804442754
ISBN-13 / EAN: 9780804442756
Binding: Hardcover

Book Description:

Clearly written and well illustrated, this book provides the reader with a physical understanding of helicopter behavior, and a capability to quantitatively predict such behavior Written primarily for engineers and researchers, the book has also found wide readership amongst people, such as pilots and middle-level managers in industry and government, whose work requires them to have more than a general, qualitative understanding of the whys and wherefores of helicopter flight. Much of its success is credited to its approach which carefully guides the reader midway between a verbal, non-quantitative treatment on one hand, and a complex and highly mathematical exposition on the other. The emphasis on fundamentals makes the book an ideal, indeed necessary, first step towards the study or use of more sophisticated and comprehensive treatments.
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Computation of Supersonic Flow over Flying Configurations

Publisher: Elsevier Science
Number Of Pages: 424
Publication Date: 2007-11-25
ISBN-10 / ASIN: 0080449573
ISBN-13 / EAN: 9780080449579
Binding: Hardcover

Alıntı:

Book Description: This high level aerospace reference book will be useful for undergraduate, and graduate students of engineering, applied mathematics and physics. The author provides solutions for three-dimensional compressible Navier-Stokes layer subsonic and supersonic flows. * Computational work and experimental results show the real world application of computational results * Easy computation and visualization of inviscid and viscous aerodynamis characteristics of flying configerations * Includes a fully optimized and integrated design for a proposed supersonic transport aircraft

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Advances in the Bonded Composite Repair of Metallic Aircraft Structure

Title: Advances in the Bonded Composite Repair of Metallic Aircraft Structure, Volume 1+2
ISBN: 0080426999
Author: A.A. Baker / L.R.F. Rose / R. Jones
Publisher: Elsevier Science
Edition: 1st ed edition (November 1, 2002)
Hardcover: 1092 pages

Summary:

The availability of efficient and cost-effective technologies to repair or extend the life of aging military airframes is becoming a critical requirement in most countries around the world, as new aircraft becoming prohibitively expensive and defence budgets shrink. To a lesser extent a similar situation is arising with civil aircraft, with falling revenues and the high cost of replacement aircraft.

This book looks at repair/reinforcement technology, which is based on the use of adhesively bonded fibre composite patches or doublers and can provide cost-effective life extension in many situations. From the scientific and engineering viewpoint, whilst simple in concept, this technology can be quite challenging particularly when used to repair primary structure. This is due to it being based on interrelated inputs from the fields of aircraft design, solid mechanics, fibre composites, structural adhesive bonding, fracture mechanics and metal fatigue. The technologies of non-destructive inspection (NDI) and, more recently smart materials, are also included. Operational issues are equally critical, including airworthiness certification, application technology (including health and safety issues), and training.

Including contributions from leading experts in Canada, UK, USA and Australia, this book discusses most of these issues and the latest developments. Most importantly, it contains real histories of application of this technology to both military and civil aircraft.

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Air and Spaceborne Radar Systems: An Introduction (Spie Press Monograph)

Air and Spaceborne Radar Systems: An Introduction (Spie Press Monograph)
By Philippe Lacomme, Jean-Claude Marchais, Jean-Philippe Hardange, Eric Normant


Publisher: SciTech Publishing
Number Of Pages: 424
Publication Date: 2001-02-15
ISBN-10 / ASIN: 1891121138
ISBN-13 / EAN: 9781891121135
Binding: Hardcover

Alıntı:

Product Description: This introduction to the field of radar is intended for actual users of radar. It focuses on the history, main principles, functions, modes, properties and specific nature of modern airborne radar. The book examines radar's role within the system when carrying out its assigned missions, showing the possibilities of radar as well as its limitations. Finally, given the changing operational requirements and the potential opened up by modern technological developments, a concluding section describes how radar may evolve in the future. The authors review the current state of the main types of airborne and spaceborne radar systems, designed for specific missions as well as for the global environment of their host aircraft or satellites. They include numerous examples of the parameters of these radars. The emphasis in the book is not only on a particular radar technique, but equally on the main radar functions and missions. Even if a wide range of techniques are described in the book, the focus is on those which are connected to practical applications. Users and other non-specialists will use the book to communicate better with suppliers, whereas engineers will find design examples and algorithms that actually work in such areas as air-to-air detection and tracking, air-to-ground, air-to-sea, and imaging from aircraft or from space. The authors give an original and independent view of the subject, based technical experience gained from their own close involvement with all the key development in airborne radar systems in France for the last 40 years. KEY FEATURES: - Visually stunning presentation, heavily illustrated with drawings, photos, charts, and more, including SAR images at very high resolution - Explains the motion effect on SAR images as well as on the main autofocus techniques and their performance. Includes an original algorithm for ISAR imaging of ships at sea. - Gives equal treatment to air defense, ground surveillance and sea surveillance systems. Most books concentrate on air defense. - Easy to understand. Can be read by anyone with only general technical and/or scientific knowledge.

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Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25)

Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge:
FAA-H-8083-25
(FAA Handbooks series)





FAA (U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration) Flight Standards Service / December 2003
ISBN not applicable

Description

Required reading for pilots for more than 25 years, this handbook is used extensively as a reference source for the FAA Knowledge Exams and provides information for training and guiding student pilots. Including basic knowledge that is essential for all pilots, from beginning students to those pursuing more advanced pilot certificates, it introduces pilots to the broad spectrum of knowledge that will be needed as they progress through their pilot training. Principles of flight, aircraft and engine structures and systems, weight / balance and performance calculations, charts and navigation, weather theory, reports, forecasts, and flight manuals are among the subjects covered. Formerly published as an Advisory Circular (AC 61-23C), this new edition is now listed as an official FAA Handbook (#FAA-H-8083-25).

Preface

The Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge provides basic knowledge that is essential for pilots. This handbook introduces pilots to the broad spectrum of knowledge that will be needed as they progress in their pilot training. Except for the Code of Federal Regulations pertinent to civil aviation, most of the knowledge areas applicable to pilot certification are presented. This handbook is useful to beginning pilots, as well as those pursuing more advanced pilot certificates.

Occasionally, the word “must” or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language is not intended to add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR). It is essential for persons using this handbook to also become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFR and the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM).

The current Flight Standards Service airman training and testing material and subject matter knowledge codes for all airman certificates and ratings can be obtained from the Flight Standards Service Web site.

This handbook supersedes Advisory Circular (AC) 61-23C, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, dated 1997. (…)

Contents

Chapter 1—Aircraft Structure
Major Components 1-1
Fuselage 1-2
Wings1-3
Empennage .1-4
Landing Gear 1-4
The Powerplant.1-5

Chapter 2—Principles of Flight
Structure of the Atmosphere2-1
Atmospheric Pressure.2-2
Effects of Pressure on Density .2-2
Effect of Temperature on Density 2-2
Effect of Humidity on Density .2-2
Newton’s Laws of Motion and Force2-2
Magnus Effect .2-3
Bernoulli’s Principle of Pressure.2-3
Airfoil Design2-4
Low Pressure Above2-5
High Pressure Below .2-6
Pressure Distribution .2-6

Chapter 3—Aerodynamics of Flight
Forces Acting on the Airplane.3-1
Thrust3-2
Drag 3-3
Weight.3-5
Lift 3-6
Wingtip Vortices 3-6
Ground Effect 3-7
Axes of an Airplane.3-8
Moments and Moment Arm 3-9
Design Characteristics .3-9
Basic Concepts of Stability 3-10
Static Stability 3-10
Dynamic Stability .3-11
Longitudinal Stability (Pitching) 3-11
Lateral Stability (Rolling) 3-14
Vertical Stability (Yawing) .3-15
Free Directional Oscillations (Dutch Roll).3-16
Spiral Instability .3-16
Aerodynamic Forces in Flight Maneuvers3-17
Forces in Turns .3-17
Forces in Climbs.3-19
Forces in Descents3-19
Stalls 3-20
Basic Propeller Principles .3-21
Torque and P Factor3-23
Torque Reaction3-23
Corkscrew Effect 3-24
Gyroscopic Action 3-24
Asymmetric Loading (P Factor).3-25
Load Factors 3-26
Load Factors in Airplane Design3-26
Load Factors in Steep Turns.3-27
Load Factors and Stalling Speeds 3-28
Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers.3-29
VG Diagram .3-30
Weight and Balance.3-31
Effects of Weight on Flight Performance 3-32
Effect of Weight on Airplane Structure3-32
Effects of Weight on Stability and Controllability3-33
Effect of Load Distribution 3-33
High Speed Flight3-35
Supersonic vs. Subsonic Flow3-35
Speed Ranges3-35
Mach Number vs. Airspeed3-36
Boundary Layer 3-36
Shock Waves.3-37
Sweepback3-38
Mach Buffet Boundaries.3-39
Flight Controls3-40

Chapter 4—Flight Controls
Primary Flight Controls.4-1
Ailerons 4-1
Adverse Yaw.4-2
Differential Ailerons .4-2
Frise-Type Ailerons 4-2
Coupled Ailerons and Rudder 4-3
Elevator.4-3
T-Tail.4-3
Stabilator.4-4
Canard.4-5
Rudder 4-5
V-Tail 4-6
Secondary Flight Controls.4-6
Flaps4-6
Leading Edge Devices4-7
Spoilers .4-7
Trim Systems4-8
Trim Tabs4-8
Balance Tabs.4-8
Antiservo Tabs4-8
Ground Adjustable Tabs .4-9
Adjustable Stabilizer 4-9

Chapter 5—Aircraft Systems
Powerplant.5-1
Reciprocating Engines5-1
Propeller5-2
Fixed-Pitch Propeller5-3
Adjustable-Pitch Propeller5-4
Induction Systems 5-5
Carburetor Systems 5-5
Mixture Control 5-5
Carburetor Icing5-6
Carburetor Heat 5-7
Carburetor Air Temperature Gauge5-8
Outside Air Temperature Gauge.5-8
Fuel Injection Systems .5-8
Superchargers and Turbosuperchargers5-9
Superchargers .5-9
Turbosuperchargers 5-10
System Operation .5-10
High Altitude Performance.5-11
Ignition System.5-11
Combustion.5-12
Fuel Systems.5-13
Fuel Pumps .5-14
Fuel Primer .5-14
Fuel Tanks.5-14
Fuel Gauges 5-14
Fuel Selectors .5-14
Fuel Strainers, Sumps, and Drains .5-14
Fuel Grades.5-15
Fuel Contamination 5-15
Refueling Procedures5-16
Starting System.5-16
Oil Systems.5-16
Engine Cooling Systems 5-18
Exhaust Systems.5-19
Electrical System 5-19
Hydraulic Systems5-22
Landing Gear 5-22
Tricycle Landing Gear Airplanes .5-22
Tailwheel Landing Gear Airplanes.5-23
Fixed and Retractable Landing Gear5-23
Brakes .5-23
Autopilot.5-23
Pressurized Airplanes 5-24
Oxygen Systems .5-26
Masks5-27
Diluter Demand Oxygen Systems 5-27
Pressure Demand Oxygen Systems5-27
Continuous Flow Oxygen System5-27
Servicing of Oxygen Systems 5-28
Ice Control Systems5-28
Airfoil Ice Control 5-28
Windscreen Ice Control 5-29
Propeller Ice Control 5-29
Other Ice Control Systems .5-29
Turbine Engines.5-29
Types of Turbine Engines.5-30
Turbojet.5-30
Turboprop .5-30
Turbofan .5-30
Turboshaft.5-31
Performance Comparison .5-31
Turbine Engine Instruments .5-31
Engine Pressure Ratio 5-32
Exhaust Gas Temperature.5-32
Torquemeter5-32
N1 Indicator5-32
N2 Indicator5-32
Turbine Engine Operational
Considerations .5-32
Engine Temperature Limitations 5-32
Thrust Variations 5-32
Foreign Object Damage5-32
Turbine Engine Hot/Hung Start .5-33
Compressor Stalls.5-33
Flameout .5-33

Chapter 6—Flight Instruments
Pitot-Static Flight Instruments.6-1
Impact Pressure Chamber and Lines6-1
Static Pressure Chamber and Lines6-1
Altimeter.6-2
Principle of Operation 6-2
Effect of Nonstandard Pressure and Temperature .6-2
Setting the Altimeter.6-3
Altimeter Operation6-4
Types of Altitude 6-4
Indicated Altitude .6-4
True Altitude.6-4
Absolute Altitude6-4
Pressure Altitude.6-4
Density Altitude6-5
Vertical Speed Indicator .6-5
Principle of Operation 6-5
Airspeed Indicator 6-6
Indicated Airspeed 6-6
Calibrated Airspeed 6-6
True Airspeed .6-6
Groundspeed.6-6
Airspeed Indicator Markings6-6
Other Airspeed Limitations 6-7
Blockage of the Pitot-Static System.6-8
Blocked Pitot System .6-8
Blocked Static System6-8
Gyroscopic Flight Instruments 6-9
Gyroscopic Principles.6-9
Rigidity in Space 6-9
Precession .6-9
Sources of Power6-10
Turn Indicators .6-10
Turn-and-Slip Indicator 6-11
Turn Coordinator 6-11
Inclinometer6-11
The Attitude Indicator 6-12
Heading Indicator .6-12
Magnetic Compass 6-14
Compass Errors 6-15
Variation6-15
Compass Deviation.6-16
Magnetic Dip 6-16
Using the Magnetic Compass.6-16
Acceleration/Deceleration Errors .6-16
Turning Errors 6-16
Vertical Card Compass .6-17
Outside Air Temperature Gauge6-17

Chapter 7—Flight Manuals and Other Documents
Airplane Flight Manuals7-1
Preliminary Pages.7-1
General (Section 1).7-2
Limitations (Section 2).7-2
Airspeed7-2
Powerplant7-2
Weight and Loading Distribution .7-2
Flight Limits .7-3
Placards.7-3
Emergency Procedures (Section 3) 7-3
Normal Procedures (Section 4) 7-3
Performance (Section 5).7-3
Weight and Balance/Equipment List (Section 6) .7-3
Systems Description (Section 7) 7-4
Handling, Service, and Maintenance (Section 8) .7-4
Supplements (Section 9).7-4
Safety Tips (Section 10) .7-5
Aircraft Documents .7-5
Certificate of Aircraft Registration.7-5
Airworthiness Certificate7-6
Aircraft Maintenance.7-7
Aircraft Inspections 7-7
Annual Inspection.7-7
100-Hour Inspection.7-7
Other Inspection Programs.7-8
Altimeter System Inspection 7-8
Transponder Inspection 7-8
Preflight Inspections.7-8
Minimum Equipment Lists (MEL) and Operations with Inoperative Equipment 7-8
Preventive Maintenance .7-9
Repairs and Alterations 7-9
Special Flight Permits 7-9
Airworthiness Directives 7-10
Aircraft Owner/Operator Responsibilities7-11

Chapter 8—Weight and Balance
Weight Control 8-1
Effects of Weight 8-1
Weight Changes8-2
Balance, Stability, and Center of Gravity8-2
Effects of Adverse Balance 8-2
Management of Weight and Balance Control .8-3
Terms and Definitions 8-3
Basic Principles of Weight and Balance Computations.8-4
Weight and Balance Restrictions8-6
Determining Loaded Weight and Center of Gravity8-6
Computational Method.8-6
Graph Method.8-6
Table Method8-8
Computations with a Negative Arm.8-8
Computations with Zero Fuel Weight 8-9
Shifting, Adding, and Removing Weight .8-9
Weight Shifting.8-9
Weight Addition or Removal8-10

Chapter 9—Aircraft Performance
Importance of Performance Data 9-1
Structure of the Atmosphere9-1
Atmospheric Pressure.9-1
Pressure Altitude.9-2
Density Altitude 9-3
Effects of Pressure on Density .9-4
Effects of Temperature on Density.9-4
Effect of Humidity (Moisture) on Density 9-4
Performance.9-4
Straight-and-Level Flight .9-5
Climb Performance. 9-6
Range Performance 9-8
Ground Effect .9-10
Region of Reversed Command 9-12
Runway Surface and Gradient 9-13
Water on the Runway and Dynamic Hydroplaning .9-14
Takeoff and Landing Performance 9-15
Takeoff Performance 9-15
Landing Performance .9-17
Performance Speeds 9-18
Performance Charts .9-19
Interpolation9-20
Density Altitude Charts 9-20
Takeoff Charts 9-22
Climb and Cruise Charts 9-23
Crosswind and Headwind Component Chart.9-28
Landing Charts .9-29
Stall Speed Performance Charts.9-30
Transport Category Airplane Performance9-31
Major Differences in Transport Category versus Non-Transport Category Performance Requirements 9-31
Performance Requirements 9-31
Runway Requirements9-32
Balanced Field Length9-32
Climb Requirements.9-34
First Segment9-35
Second Segment .9-35
Third or Acceleration Segment 9-35
Forth or Final Segment.9-35
Second Segment Climb Limitations.9-35
Air Carrier Obstacle Clearance Requirements.9-36
Summary of Takeoff Requirements 9-36
Landing Performance .9-37
Planning the Landing 9-37
Landing Requirements 9-37
Approach Climb Requirements 9-37
Landing Runway Required. 9-37
Summary of Landing Requirements. 9-38
Examples of Performance Charts 9-39

Chapter 10—Weather Theory
Nature of the Atmosphere .10-1
Oxygen and the Human Body 10-2
Significance of Atmospheric Pressure 10-3
Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure 10-3
Effect of Altitude on Atmospheric Pressure 10-4
Effect of Altitude on Flight 10-4
Effect of Differences in Air Density 10-5
Wind .10-5
The Cause of Atmosphere Circulation 10-5
Wind Patterns .10-6
Convective Currents .10-7
Effect of Obstructions on Wind10-8
Low-Level Wind Shear 10-9
Wind and Pressure Representation on Surface Weather Maps 10-11
Atmospheric Stability 10-12
Inversion .10-13
Moisture and Temperature 10-13
Relative Humidity 10-13
Temperature/Dewpoint Relationship 10-13
Methods By Which Air Reaches the Saturation Point .10-14
Dew and Frost 10-14
Fog10-14
Clouds.10-15
Ceiling 10-17
Visibility .10-18
Precipitation 10-18
Air Masses .10-18
Fronts .10-18
Warm Front.10-19
Flight Toward an Approaching Warm Front 10-20
Cold Front.10-20
Fast-Moving Cold Front. 10-21
Flight Toward an Approaching Cold Front 10-21
Comparison of Cold and Warm Fronts 10-21
Wind Shifts .10-21
Stationary Front 10-22
Occluded Front .10-22

Chapter 11—Weather Reports, Forecasts, and Charts
Observations 11-1
Surface Aviation Weather Observations .11-1
Upper Air Observations11-1
Radar Observations.11-2
Service Outlets.11-2
FAA Flight Service Station.11-2
Transcribed Information Briefing Service (TIBS).11-2
Direct User Access Terminal Service (DUATS).11-2
En Route Flight Advisory Service11-2
Hazardous In-Flight Weather Advisory (HIWAS)11-3
Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) .11-3
Weather Briefings 11-3
Standard Briefing11-3
Abbreviated Briefing 11-4
Outlook Briefing.11-4
Aviation Weather Reports11-4
Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR).11-4
Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs).11-7
Radar Weather Reports (SD) 11-8
Aviation Forecasts .11-9
Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts.11-9
Area Forecasts 11-10
In-Flight Weather Advisories11-12
Airman’s Meteorological Information (AIRMET) .11-12
Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMET)11-12
Convective Significant Meteorological Information (WST) 11-12
Winds and Temperature Aloft Forecast (FD).11-13
Weather Charts.11-14
Surface Analysis Chart .11-14
Weather Depiction Chart 11-15
Radar Summary Chart 11-16
Significant Weather Prognostic Charts.11-18

Chapter 12—Airport Operations
Types of Airports .12-1
Controlled Airport 12-1
Uncontrolled Airport 12-1
Sources for Airport Data .12-1
Aeronautical Charts 12-1
Airport/Facility Directory.12-1
Notices to Airmen.12-3
Airport Markings and Signs 12-3
Runway Markings 12-3
Taxiway Markings 12-3
Other Markings.12-3
Airport Signs 12-3
Airport Lighting.12-5
Airport Beacon .12-5
Approach Light Systems 12-6
Visual Glideslope Indicators 12-6
Visual Approach Slope Indicator12-6
Other Glidepath Systems12-6
Runway Lighting12-6
Runway End Identifier Lights 12-6
Runway Edge Lights 12-7
In-Runway Lighting .12-7
Control of Airport Lighting 12-7
Taxiway Lights .12-8
Obstruction Lights 12-8
Wind Direction Indicators .12-8
Radio Communications .12-8
Radio License .12-8
Radio Equipment12-8
Lost Communication Procedures .12-9
Air Traffic Control Services 12-10
Primary Radar.12-10
Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System 12-11
Transponder 12-11
Radar Traffic Information Service12-11
Wake Turbulence .12-12
Vortex Generation.12-13
Vortex Strength .12-13
Vortex Behavior12-13
Vortex Avoidance Procedures.12-13
Collision Avoidance.12-14
Clearing Procedures12-14
Runway Incursion Avoidance.12-14

Chapter 13—Airspace
Controlled Airspace .13-1
Class AAirspace.13-1
Class B Airspace.13-1
Class C Airspace.13-1
Class D Airspace 13-3
Class E Airspace.13-3
Uncontrolled Airspace .13-3
Class G Airspace 13-3
Special Use Airspace .13-3
Prohibited Areas .13-3

Restricted Areas13-3
Warning Areas 13-4
Military Operation Areas13-4
Alert Areas13-4
Controlled Firing Areas 13-4
Other Airspace Areas.13-4
Airport Advisory Areas 13-4
Military Training Routes 13-4
Temporary Flight Restrictions13-4
Parachute Jump Areas 13-4
Published VFR Routes .13-4
Terminal Radar Service Areas13-5
National Security Areas13-5

Chapter 14—Navigation
Aeronautical Charts .14-1
Sectional Charts14-1
Visual Flight Rule Terminal Area Charts.14-1
World Aeronautical Charts .14-1
Latitude and Longitude (Meridians and Parallels) .14-2
Time Zones .14-2
Measurement of Direction14-3
Variation14-4
Deviation 14-5
Effect of Wind .14-6
Basic Calculations .14-8
Converting Minutes to Equivalent Hours .14-8
Converting Knots to Miles Per Hour .14-8
Fuel Consumption 14-8
Flight Computers 14-8
Plotter14-8
Pilotage 14-10
Dead Reckoning 14-10
The Wind Triangle or Vector Analysis .14-10
Flight Planning 14-13
Assembling Necessary Material.14-13
Weather Check14-13
Use of the Airport/Facility Directory .14-13
Airplane Flight Manual or Pilot’s Operating Handbook 14-13
Charting the Course.14-14
Steps in Charting the Course14-14
Filing a VFR Flight Plan .14-16
Radio Navigation.14-17
Very High Frequency (VHF) Omnidirectional Range (VOR) .14-18
Using the VOR.14-19
Tracking with VOR14-20
Tips On Using the VOR.14-21
Distance Measuring Equipment 14-21
VOR/DME RNAV14-21
Automatic Direction Finder 14-22
Loran-C Navigation14-24
Global Position System .14-26
Lost Procedures .14-27
Flight Diversion.14-27

Chapter 15—Aeromedical Factors
Obtaining a Medical Certificate 15-1
Environmental and Health Factors Affecting Pilot Performance.15-2
Hypoxia 15-2
Hypoxic Hypoxia15-2
Hypemic Hypoxia.15-2
Stagnant Hypoxia .15-2
Histotoxic Hypoxia.15-2
Symptoms of Hypoxia15-2
Hyperventilation .15-3
Middle Ear and Sinus Problems.15-3
Spatial Disorientation and Illusions .15-4
Motion Sickness .15-6
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning15-6
Stress.15-6
Fatigue 15-7
Dehydration and Heatstroke.15-7
Alcohol .15-8
Drugs 15-8
Scuba Diving 15-9
Vision in Flight15-9
Empty-Field Myopia 15-10
Night Vision15-10
Night Vision Illusions.15-11
Autokinesis .15-11
False Horizon15-11
Night Landing Illusions15-12

Chapter 16—Aeronautical Decision Making
Origins of ADM Training16-2
The Decision-Making Process.16-2
Defining the Problem .16-2
Choosing a Course of Action .16-3
Implementing the Decision and Evaluating the Outcome 16-4
Risk Management16-4
Assessing Risk16-5
Factors Affecting Decision Making 16-5
Pilot Self-Assessment.16-5
Recognizing Hazardous Attitudes 16-6
Stress Management.16-6
Use of Resources 16-7
Internal Resources 16-7
External Resources .16-8
Workload Management.16-8
Situational Awareness.16-8
Obstacles to Maintaining Situational Awareness 16-9
Operational Pitfalls16-9

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